{"id":10264,"date":"2020-04-07T11:00:49","date_gmt":"2020-04-07T16:00:49","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/short-reads\/%year%\/%monthnum%\/%day%\/decade-long-decline-in-newsroom-employment-hit-midcareer-workers-the-hardest\/"},"modified":"2024-04-14T01:17:21","modified_gmt":"2024-04-14T06:17:21","slug":"decade-long-decline-in-newsroom-employment-hit-midcareer-workers-the-hardest","status":"publish","type":"short-read","link":"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/short-reads\/2020\/04\/07\/decade-long-decline-in-newsroom-employment-hit-midcareer-workers-the-hardest\/","title":{"rendered":"Decade-long decline in newsroom employment hit midcareer workers the hardest"},"content":{"rendered":"<figure><a href='https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/02\/FT.20.02.27_religiosityDEMcandidates_DemRep640px.png'><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"159\" src=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/02\/FT.20.02.27_religiosityDEMcandidates_DemRep640px.png?w=300\" class=\"attachment-medium size-medium not-transparent\" alt=\"Republicans less likely to view Democratic candidates as religious\" srcset=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/02\/FT.20.02.27_religiosityDEMcandidates_DemRep640px.png 1281w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/02\/FT.20.02.27_religiosityDEMcandidates_DemRep640px.png?resize=300,159 300w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/02\/FT.20.02.27_religiosityDEMcandidates_DemRep640px.png?resize=768,406 768w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/02\/FT.20.02.27_religiosityDEMcandidates_DemRep640px.png?resize=1024,541 1024w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/02\/FT.20.02.27_religiosityDEMcandidates_DemRep640px.png?resize=160,85 160w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/02\/FT.20.02.27_religiosityDEMcandidates_DemRep640px.png?resize=766,405 766w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/02\/FT.20.02.27_religiosityDEMcandidates_DemRep640px.png?resize=200,106 200w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/02\/FT.20.02.27_religiosityDEMcandidates_DemRep640px.png?resize=260,137 260w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/02\/FT.20.02.27_religiosityDEMcandidates_DemRep640px.png?resize=310,164 310w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/02\/FT.20.02.27_religiosityDEMcandidates_DemRep640px.png?resize=420,222 420w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/02\/FT.20.02.27_religiosityDEMcandidates_DemRep640px.png?resize=640,338 640w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/02\/FT.20.02.27_religiosityDEMcandidates_DemRep640px.png?resize=740,391 740w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" data-has-transparency=\"false\" data-dominant-color=\"f0edee\" style=\"--dominant-color: #f0edee;\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p><figure id=\"attachment_361410\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-361410\" style=\"width: 640px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-361410\" src=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/FT_20.03.06_MidCareerJournalists_feature.jpg\" alt=\"(Brendan Smialowski\/AFP via Getty Images)\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\"><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-361410\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">(Brendan Smialowski\/AFP via Getty Images)<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/figure>\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/short-reads\/2020\/04\/07\/decade-long-decline-in-newsroom-employment-hit-midcareer-workers-the-hardest\/ft_2020-04-07_midcareerjournalists_01\/\"><img data-dominant-color=\"f2f1f1\" data-has-transparency=\"false\" style=\"--dominant-color: #f2f1f1;\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"620\" height=\"1044\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 620px) 100vw, 620px\" class=\"wp-image-19682 not-transparent\" src=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_01.png\" alt=\"Midcareer newsroom workers declined by 42% between 2008 and 2018\" srcset=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_01.png 620w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_01.png?resize=178,300 178w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_01.png?resize=608,1024 608w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_01.png?resize=241,405 241w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_01.png?resize=200,337 200w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_01.png?resize=260,438 260w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_01.png?resize=310,522 310w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_01.png?resize=420,707 420w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_01.png?resize=160,269 160w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_01.png?resize=320,539 320w\" \/><\/a><\/figure>\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Newsroom employment <a href=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/short-reads\/2019\/07\/09\/u-s-newsroom-employment-has-dropped-by-a-quarter-since-2008\/\">dropped by a quarter<\/a> between 2008 and 2018, but the job cuts were not shouldered equally by journalists of all ages. Midcareer news workers \u2013 those ages 35 to 54 \u2013 were hit the hardest, accounting for the bulk of the decline, according to a Pew Research Center analysis of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.census.gov\/programs-surveys\/acs\/\">American Community Survey<\/a> data.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The analysis comes at another difficult time for American newsrooms, as the effects of the coronavirus outbreak lead to <a href=\"https:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2020\/03\/22\/media\/coronavirus-local-news\/index.html\">layoffs, losses in advertising revenue and other challenges<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the most recent 10-year period with available data, the number of full-time midcareer newsroom employees in the U.S. dropped by 42%, from about 52,900 to 30,800 workers. The number of newsroom workers ages 55 and older <em>increased<\/em> by 31%, from about 16,400 to 21,400 \u2013 but not enough to offset the losses in the midcareer age group. By comparison, the number of younger newsroom employees (ages 18 to 34) remained relatively stable, with no significant change occurring over the decade.<!--more--><\/p>\n\n<div style=\"border-width:1px;padding-bottom:var(--wp--preset--spacing--20);padding-left:var(--wp--preset--spacing--30);padding-right:var(--wp--preset--spacing--30);padding-top:var(--wp--preset--spacing--20);--block-gap: inherit\" class=\"wp-block-prc-block-collapsible has-background has-ui-beige-very-light-background-color has-border-color has-ui-beige-dark-border-color\" id=\"how-we-did-this\" data-wp-interactive=\"{&quot;namespace&quot;:&quot;prc-block\\\/collapsible&quot;}\" data-wp-context=\"{&quot;collapsibleId&quot;:&quot;how-we-did-this&quot;,&quot;isOpen&quot;:false}\" data-wp-class--is-open=\"context.isOpen\" data-wp-init--scroll-into-view=\"callbacks.onInitScrollIntoView\"><div class=\"wp-block-prc-block-collapsible__title\" data-wp-on--click=\"actions.onClick\"><div>How we did this<\/div><button class=\"wp-block-prc-block-collapsible__icon\"><span data-wp-bind--hidden=\"context.isOpen\"><i class=\"icon icon-library__light icon__circle-plus\"><svg style=\"width: 1em; height: 1em;\"><use xlink:href=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/plugins\/prc-icon-library\/build\/icons\/sprites\/light.svg#circle-plus\"><\/use><\/svg><\/i><\/span><span data-wp-bind--hidden=\"!context.isOpen\" hidden><i class=\"icon icon-library__light icon__circle-minus\"><svg style=\"width: 1em; height: 1em;\"><use xlink:href=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/plugins\/prc-icon-library\/build\/icons\/sprites\/light.svg#circle-minus\"><\/use><\/svg><\/i><\/span><\/button><\/div><div class=\"wp-block-prc-block-collapsible__content\"><h1 id=\"how-we-did-this\" class=\"wp-block-heading\">How we did this<\/h1><p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">We undertook this analysis of newsroom employment to look beyond the overall job reductions in the industry and determine their impact on the demographic makeup of news organizations. Included in the analysis are reporters, editors, photographers and videographers ages 18 and older working full time in the newspaper, broadcasting and internet publishing industries. The underlying data comes from the U.S. Census Bureau 2008 and 2018 American Community Survey 1-Year <a href=\"https:\/\/www.census.gov\/programs-surveys\/acs\/data\/pums.html\">Public Microdata<\/a>. Here is the <a href=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/Methodology_newsroom-employees.pdf\">methodology<\/a> for this report.<\/p><\/div><\/div>\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/short-reads\/2020\/04\/07\/decade-long-decline-in-newsroom-employment-hit-midcareer-workers-the-hardest\/ft_2020-04-07_midcareerjournalists_02\/\"><img data-dominant-color=\"e2dbd8\" data-has-transparency=\"false\" style=\"--dominant-color: #e2dbd8;\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"620\" height=\"1120\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 620px) 100vw, 620px\" class=\"wp-image-19677 not-transparent\" src=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_02.png\" alt=\"Share of newsroom employees ages 35 to 54 dropped from about half in 2008 to about a third in 2018\" srcset=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_02.png 620w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_02.png?resize=166,300 166w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_02.png?resize=567,1024 567w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_02.png?resize=224,405 224w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_02.png?resize=200,361 200w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_02.png?resize=260,470 260w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_02.png?resize=310,560 310w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_02.png?resize=420,759 420w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_02.png?resize=160,289 160w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_02.png?resize=320,578 320w\" \/><\/a><\/figure>\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In this analysis, newsroom employees include reporters, editors, photographers and videographers ages 18 and older working full time in the newspaper, broadcasting and internet publishing industries. For a full definition of \u201cnewsroom employees,\u201d see the <a href=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/Methodology_newsroom-employees.pdf\">methodology<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The age composition of newsrooms changed during this decade. In 2008, about half (48%) of newsroom employees were ages 35 to 54, while about four-in-ten (37%) were 18 to 34. By 2018, the share of midcareer newsroom workers fell to 36% \u2013 about the same share as their younger colleagues (39%). Newsroom employees ages 55 and older became more common in newsrooms than they were 10 years earlier, increasing to a quarter of all news workers by the end of the decade, up from 15% in 2008.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This age shift has been accompanied by other important trends as news companies continue to struggle:<\/p>\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/short-reads\/2020\/04\/07\/decade-long-decline-in-newsroom-employment-hit-midcareer-workers-the-hardest\/ft_2020-04-07_midcareerjournalists_03\/\"><img data-dominant-color=\"e2ddda\" data-has-transparency=\"false\" style=\"--dominant-color: #e2ddda;\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"620\" height=\"1513\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 620px) 100vw, 620px\" class=\"wp-image-19713 not-transparent\" src=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_03.png\" alt=\"Share of nonwhite newsroom employees increased between 2008 and 2018, but the overall number of nonwhite journalists remained relatively flat\" srcset=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_03.png 620w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_03.png?resize=123,300 123w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_03.png?resize=420,1025 420w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_03.png?resize=166,405 166w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_03.png?resize=200,488 200w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_03.png?resize=260,634 260w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_03.png?resize=310,757 310w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_03.png?resize=131,320 131w, https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2020\/04\/ft_2020.04.07_midcareerjournalists_03.png?resize=262,640 262w\" \/><\/a><\/figure>\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>While non-Hispanic whites still made up the majority of newsroom workers across the industry by 2018, the share of newsroom employees of other races and ethnicities increased to 26%, up from 20% in 2008. This increase in newsroom diversity, however, was due to the decline in the number of white newsroom employees, not an increase in nonwhite journalists. Between 2008 and 2018, the number of white newsroom employees fell from about 88,200 to 63,200, a 28% drop. By comparison, the number of nonwhite newsroom employees remained relatively flat, at about 22,000.<\/li>\n<li>The decline in newsroom employees affected both men and women. Between 2008 and 2018, the number of men who were full-time newsroom employees declined from about 66,100 to about 55,000 workers, while women newsroom workers dropped from about 43,700 to 30,900 workers. Men were still the majority (64%) of newsroom workers at the end of the decade, however, on par with their share in 2008 (60%).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><em>Note: Here is the <a href=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/04\/Methodology_newsroom-employees.pdf\">methodology<\/a> for this report.\u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group is-style-callout has-ui-beige-very-light-background-color has-background is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\"><p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Read more about American newsrooms:<\/p><ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/short-reads\/2019\/08\/01\/large-u-s-newspapers-layoffs-2018\/\">About a quarter of large U.S. newspapers laid off staff in 2018<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/short-reads\/2018\/07\/23\/about-a-third-of-large-u-s-newspapers-have-suffered-layoffs-since-2017\/\">About a third of large U.S. newspapers suffered layoffs between January 2017 and April 2018 <\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/short-reads\/2019\/07\/09\/u-s-newsroom-employment-has-dropped-by-a-quarter-since-2008\/#more-304666\">U.S. newsroom employment has dropped by a quarter since 2008, with greatest decline at newspapers<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/topics\/state-of-the-news-media\/\">Newspapers Fact Sheet<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/journalism\/fact-sheet\/digital-news\/\">Digital News Fact Sheet<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/short-reads\/2018\/10\/04\/newsroom-employees-earn-less-than-other-college-educated-workers-in-u-s\/\">Newsroom employees earn less than other college-educated workers in U.S.<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/short-reads\/2018\/11\/02\/newsroom-employees-are-less-diverse-than-u-s-workers-overall\/\">Newsroom employees are less diverse than U.S. workers overall<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul><\/div>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Newsroom employment dropped by a quarter between 2008 and 2018, but the job cuts were not shouldered equally by journalists of all ages.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":584,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_crdt_document":"","sub_headline":"","sub_title":"","_prc_public_revisions":[],"_ppp_expiration_hours":0,"_ppp_enabled":false,"ai_generated_summary":"","apple_news_api_created_at":"","apple_news_api_id":"","apple_news_api_modified_at":"","apple_news_api_revision":"","apple_news_api_share_url":"","apple_news_cover_media_provider":"image","apple_news_coverimage":0,"apple_news_coverimage_caption":"","apple_news_cover_video_id":0,"apple_news_cover_video_url":"","apple_news_cover_embedwebvideo_url":"","apple_news_is_hidden":"","apple_news_is_paid":"","apple_news_is_preview":"","apple_news_is_sponsored":"","apple_news_maturity_rating":"","apple_news_metadata":"\"\"","apple_news_pullquote":"","apple_news_pullquote_position":"","apple_news_slug":"","apple_news_sections":[],"apple_news_suppress_video_url":false,"apple_news_use_image_component":false,"relatedPosts":[],"_prc_fork_parent":0,"_prc_fork_status":"","_prc_active_fork":0,"datacite_doi":"","datacite_doi_citation":"","_prc_seo_qr_attachment_id":0,"spoken_article_player_enabled":true,"footnotes":""},"categories":[234,332,392,326],"bylines":[830],"collection":[],"datasets":[],"_post_visibility":[],"formats":[467],"_fund_pool":[],"languages":[],"regions-countries":[515],"research-teams":[527],"class_list":["post-10264","short-read","type-short-read","status-publish","hentry","category-business-workplace","category-media-industry","category-media-layoffs-employment","category-news-media-trends","bylines-elizabeth-grieco","formats-short-read","regions-countries-united-states","research-teams-journalism"],"label":"Short 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