{"id":69855,"date":"2023-08-30T09:38:24","date_gmt":"2023-08-30T14:38:24","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/2023\/08\/30\/government-policy-toward-religion-in-the-peoples-republic-of-china-a-brief-history\/"},"modified":"2025-05-19T11:12:15","modified_gmt":"2025-05-19T15:12:15","slug":"government-policy-toward-religion-in-the-peoples-republic-of-china-a-brief-history","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/religion\/2023\/08\/30\/government-policy-toward-religion-in-the-peoples-republic-of-china-a-brief-history\/","title":{"rendered":"Government policy toward religion in the People\u2019s Republic of China \u2013 a brief history"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) is officially atheist<\/a>, and its members are not permitted to join any religion. The party\u2019s attitude aligns with the Marxist view that religion is a temporary historical phenomenon that will disappear as societies advance. Although this stance has not changed in the seven decades since the state\u2019s founding, policies on the ground have constantly evolved. For example, the current constitution of the People\u2019s Republic of China, adopted in 1982, states that ordinary Chinese citizens enjoy \u201cfreedom of religious beliefs\u201d (zongjiao xinyang ziyou <\/em>\u5b97\u6559\u4fe1\u4ef0\u81ea\u7531).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

1950s: Transition to socialism<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
\"\"
A close-up of \u201cThe Founding Ceremony of the Nation\u201d (1954 revision), a state-commissioned painting showing then-Chairman Mao Zedong proclaiming the establishment of the People\u2019s Republic of China on Oct. 1, 1949. (Universal History Archive\/UIG via Getty Images) <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

After then-Chairman Mao Zedong\u2019s CCP established the People\u2019s Republic of China in 1949, religion \u2013 \u201cthe opiate of the masses,\u201d according to Karl Marx \u2013 quickly became a target.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Political leaders at the time described religion as being linked to \u201cforeign cultural imperialism,\u201d \u201cfeudalism\u201d and \u201csuperstition.\u201d Religious groups were persecuted across the board: Buddhist monks for participating in a feudal regime that supported them with donations, and Christians for their ties to foreign missionaries and the Vatican.[89. numoffset=”89″ Leung, Beatrice. 2005. \u201cChina\u2019s Religious Freedom Policy: The Art of Managing Religious Activity.\u201d<\/a> The China Quarterly.] <\/p>\n\n\n\n

In the 1950s, as a part of a nationalization campaign, the government confiscated many temples, churches and mosques for secular use.[90. Goossaert, Vincent, and David A. Palmer. 2011. \u201cThe Religious Question in Modern China.\u201d] Foreign missionaries were deported, and churches were urged to cut ties with outside organizations, including the Vatican.[91. Madsen, Richard. 2003. \u201cCatholic Revival during the Reform Era.\u201d<\/a> The China Quarterly.] <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Meanwhile, the government established a Religious Affairs Bureau to oversee religious activities and promoted the Three-Self Patriotic Movement (self-government, self-support and self-propagation) for religious groups. By the late 1950s, patriotic religious associations had been formed to manage and monitor each of five religions \u2013 Buddhism<\/a> (1953), Islam<\/a> (1953), Protestantism<\/a> (1954), Taoism<\/a> (1957) and Catholicism<\/a> (1957).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

1966-1976: Mao Zedong\u2019s Cultural Revolution<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
\"\"
Tibetan students in Beijing learn about Mao Zedong\u2019s anti-Confucian campaign in April 1974. (Gamma-Rapho\/API via Getty Images)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

During the Cultural Revolution<\/a>, religion became a target of Mao\u2019s campaign to eliminate the \u201cFour Olds\u201d<\/a> \u2013 \u201cold things, old ideas, old customs and old habits.\u201d All religious activities were banned, and religious personnel were persecuted<\/a>. Paramilitary Red Guards attacked or destroyed<\/a> many temples, shrines, churches and mosques, and some were abandoned, closed or confiscated.[92. Yang, Fenggang. 2011. \u201cReligion in China: Survival and Revival under Communist Rule.\u201d] Chinese people who wanted to maintain their faith practiced in secret.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

1982: Document 19<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
\"\"
Tibetan Buddhists walk the kora \u2013 repeatedly walking and meditating around a sacred site or temple \u2013 in 2021 in front of the Jokhang Temple, Tibet\u2019s holiest site, which was attacked by Red Guards during the Cultural Revolution. (Kevin Frayer\/Getty Images)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

State policy toward religion shifted after Mao\u2019s death in 1976. In 1982, the Central Committee of the CCP issued a manifesto that came to be known as Document 19,<\/a> in which the CCP acknowledged the complexity associated with religion<\/a> and granted its citizens freedom of religious belief (zongjiao xinyang ziyou).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The document also set boundaries for religious freedom by allowing only \u201cnormal\u201d religious activities (though it left \u201cnormal\u201d undefined) and banning religious education among minors. In addition, the CCP banned party members from practicing or believing in religion and stressed the importance of strengthening atheist education among China\u2019s citizens.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In the decades following the Cultural Revolution, the government focused on economic development. Religious activity began to revive. Temples, mosques and churches closed or confiscated during the Cultural Revolution were allowed to reopen, while those that had been damaged or destroyed were repaired or rebuilt \u2013 some with government funds. Buddhist temple construction and activities significantly benefited, as authorities hoped religious tourism would boost the economy.[93. Lalibert\u00e9, Andr\u00e9. 2011. \u201cBuddhist Revival under State Watch.\u201d<\/a> Journal of Current Chinese Affairs. Refer also to Ji, Zhe. 2004. \u201cBuddhism and the State: The New Relationship.\u201d<\/a> China Perspectives.<\/em>]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Government officials in some instances even tolerated religious groups or activities outside the legally sanctioned system. For instance, the popular pastor Samuel Lamb (Lin Xiangao<\/a>), who led a large underground Protestant church in Guangdong province, was generally left to operate freely<\/a> in the 1980s.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In this relaxed climate for religion, the traditional practice of Qigong<\/em><\/a> (\u6c14\u529f) became widespread, by some estimates attracting<\/a> more than 60 million<\/a> practitioners across China by the late 1980s. Qigong \u2013 a set of exercises and meditative practices related to Buddhism and Taoism \u2013 was openly endorsed for its purported health benefits and promoted by high-level officials and leading scientists. Despite its spiritual roots, authorities did not view Qigong as superstition or even religion, instead declaring it a \u201cprecious scientific heritage.\u201d[94. Palmer, David A. 2007. \u201cQigong fever: Body, Science, and Utopia in China.\u201d<\/a>] During this time, many new Qigong masters<\/a>, who claimed to have supernatural power (teyi gongneng<\/em> \u7279\u5f02\u529f\u80fd), emerged. So did new forms of Qigong that incorporated elements of folk, Taoist and Buddhist traditions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

1989: Tiananmen Square protests<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
\"\"
Student protesters gather in May 1989 in Tiananmen Square, Beijing, to demand greater freedom of speech and democracy. On June 4, the government shut down the protests in what came to be known as the Tiananmen Square Massacre. (Peter Turnley\/Getty Images)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

The student-led, pro-democracy protests in Tiananmen Square<\/a>, Beijing, that were ended violently by the government<\/a> led to tighter regulation in all spheres of life.[95. Lambert, Anthony P.B. 1990. \u201cThe Church in China \u2013 Pre- and Post-Tiananmen Square.\u201d<\/a> Religion in Communist Lands.] Authorities cracked down on religious groups outside the official system and arrested their leaders and members, significantly affecting underground churches.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In 1995, China\u2019s leadership labeled 15 religious groups, including 12 with Christian roots, as \u201cevil cults\u201d<\/a> and banned them. Soon after, it also outlawed some Qigong groups.[96. Palmer, David A. 2007. \u201cQigong fever: Body, science, and utopia in China.\u201d<\/a>] <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Falun Gong<\/em> (\u6cd5\u8f6e\u529f), a spiritual group that emerged in the early 1990s, was officially denounced as an \u201cevil cult\u201d in 1999, following the Zhongnanhai Incident<\/a>, when thousands of Falun Gong practitioners protested outside the leadership compound of the CCP central committee, demanding official recognition. At the time, Falun Gong claimed to have 70 million adherents in China<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"
People participate in a Falun Gong (\u6cd5\u8f6e\u529f) morning exercise and mediation group on July 22, 1999, in Guangzhou, China, just hours before the group was declared an illegal organization (or \u201cevil cult\u201d) by the Chinese government. (AFP via Getty Images)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Since then, Falun Gong has been treated harshly<\/a>. The government established the Office for Preventing and Dealing with the Evil Cult Issue, also known as the 610 Office, to crack down on Falun Gong nationwide.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2004: \u2018Regulations on Religious Affairs\u2019<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
\"\"<\/a><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

While the government cracked down on these new religious groups, the state policy on five recognized religions shifted slightly, becoming relatively lenient<\/a> as political leaders emphasized pushing them to adapt to the socialist society. In 2004, the State Council issued a set of \u201cRegulations on Religious Affairs.\u201d<\/a> <\/p>\n\n\n\n

The document listed rules for religious personnel, sites and activities. It specified that local religious bureaus could exercise legal and administrative authority over religious affairs, such as closing unregistered churches and confiscating properties.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

However, the regulations were not always strictly enforced at the local level. Observers say that local authorities managed religious practices with \u201cone eye open and one eye closed\u201d and tolerated \u201cillegal\u201d religious activities as long as \u201cno lines have been crossed.\u201d[97. Weller, Robert P. 2014. \u201cThe Politics of Increasing Religious Diversity in China.\u201d<\/a> Daedalus. Also refer to Vala, Carsten T. 2017. \u201cThe Politics of Protestant Churches and the Party-State in China: God above Party?\u201d] <\/p>\n\n\n\n

In other words, local regulations on religious activities under then-President Hu Jintao\u2019s leadership (2003-2013) remained essentially unchanged from the previous decade, as Hu believed religion could contribute to a harmonious society<\/a>.[98. Wu, Keping. 2016. \u201cThe Philanthropic Turn of Religions in Post-Mao China: Bureaucratization, Professionalization, and the Making of a Moral Subject.\u201d<\/a> Modern China. Also refer to Leung, Beatrice. 2005. \u201cChina\u2019s Religious Freedom Policy: The Art of Managing Religious Activity.\u201d<\/a> The China Quarterly.] <\/p>\n\n\n\n

2015: Xi Jinping\u2019s \u2018Sinicization campaign\u2019<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
\"\"
Children attend a Holy Communion during Christmas Mass at a Catholic church in Beijing in 2009. Since 2017, the Chinese government has tightened control over religion and strictly enforced the ban on children attending religious services. (Liu Jin\/AFP via Getty Images)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Since Xi Jinping came to power as the general secretary of the CCP in 2012 and officially took office as China\u2019s president in 2013, he has followed a new strategy on religion.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/a><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Xi summarized his approach to religious groups in a speech in 2015<\/a> that called for the \u201cSinicization of religions,\u201d<\/a> urging all religious groups in China to adapt to socialism by integrating their doctrines, customs and morality with Chinese culture. The campaign particularly affects so-called \u201cforeign\u201d religions. Leaders of Protestantism<\/a>, Catholicism<\/a> and Islam<\/a> are expected to align their teachings and customs<\/a> with Chinese traditions and \u201cpledge loyalty<\/a>\u201d to the state.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

His strategy is two-pronged: On the one hand, the government has tightened controls on Islam and Christianity. China\u2019s policy toward Muslims includes the detention of Uyghurs in Xinjiang and a crackdown on underground Quran study groups.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"
Archbishop Joseph Li Shan leads a Catholic ceremony on Holy Saturday at the South Cathedral in Beijing in March 2018. Later that year, the Vatican announced a historic agreement with China on the appointment of bishops. (Greg Baker\/AFP via Getty Images)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Toward Protestants, the government has reinforced its ban on unauthorized worship sites, forcing house churches to join a state-run association and detaining religious leaders who refuse to cooperate.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Similarly, \u201cunderground\u201d Catholics have faced increased harassment<\/a>, especially after the Beijing-Vatican deal in 2018<\/a>, which paved the way for the Chinese government and the Holy See to cooperate in appointing bishops.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

On the other hand, as Xi has promoted traditional Chinese culture, activities tied to Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism have continued to experience relative leniency<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

For instance, the government has allocated funds<\/a> to protect and repair cultural relics, including Buddhist grottoes<\/a>, and has encouraged Taoists to contribute<\/a> to constructing an \u201cecological civilization.”<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

This is not to say that Confucianism<\/a>, Taoism and Buddhism<\/a> have been spared from government control.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

These groups, too, have faced increased scrutiny, though to a lesser extent than Islam and Christianity. For example, the government has enacted measures to tackle \u201coutstanding problems\u201d in the Buddhist and Taoist communities, including alleged commercialization<\/a>, misconduct by Buddhist leaders<\/a>, and fake monks<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"
People dressed as ancient scholars attend a memorial ceremony to mark the 2,571st anniversary of Confucius\u2019 birthday at the Confucius Temple in Nanjing, China, on Sept. 28, 2020. (Liu Jianhua\/VCG via Getty Images)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

The State Council updated its \u201cRegulations on Religious Affairs\u201d<\/a> in 2017. Since then, local authorities have intensified efforts to investigate, register and manage unauthorized places of assembly, such as house churches<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"
Muslims wait to attend Friday prayers at the Dongguan Mosque in Xining, China, in 2010. In 2021, the mosque\u2019s main green dome and minaret domes were removed to make the building look more \u201ctraditionally\u201d Chinese as part of a national campaign to \u201cSinicize\u201d religions. (Feng Li\/Getty Images)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

In 2018, the State Administration for Religious Affairs (SARA), which previously enforced religious policy relatively independently, was renamed the National Religious Affairs Administration and placed under the direct supervision<\/a> of the United Front Work Department<\/a> (UFWD) \u2013 a powerful agency responsible for neutralizing or stifling potential opposition groups that is sometimes referred to as the CCP\u2019s \u201cmagic weapon\u201d<\/a> \u2013 signaling a tightening<\/a> of the party\u2019s grip on religion. SARA\u2019s local offices were subsequently absorbed into the UFWD.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In 2021, the government issued a new regulation on online religious content<\/a>, banning unauthorized religious activities and unregistered religious groups from sharing religious content online.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) is officially atheist, and its members are not permitted to join any religion. The party\u2019s attitude aligns with the Marxist view that religion is a temporary historical phenomenon that will disappear as societies advance. 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Religious change in China","slug":"religious-change-in-china","link":"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/religion\/2023\/08\/30\/religious-change-in-china\/","is_active":false},{"id":69840,"title":"2. Confucianism, Taoism and Chinese folk religions","slug":"confucianism-taoism-and-chinese-folk-religions","link":"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/religion\/2023\/08\/30\/confucianism-taoism-and-chinese-folk-religions\/","is_active":false},{"id":69827,"title":"3. Buddhism","slug":"buddhism","link":"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/religion\/2023\/08\/30\/buddhism\/","is_active":false},{"id":69913,"title":"4. Christianity","slug":"christianity","link":"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/religion\/2023\/08\/30\/christianity\/","is_active":false},{"id":69901,"title":"5. Islam","slug":"islam","link":"https:\/\/alpha.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/religion\/2023\/08\/30\/islam\/","is_active":false},{"id":69887,"title":"6. 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