A survey of 2,462 Advanced Placement (AP) and National Writing Project (NWP) teachers finds that digital technologies are shaping student writing in myriad ways and have also become helpful tools for teaching writing to middle and high school students.  These teachers see the internet and digital technologies such as social networking sites, cell phones and texting, generally facilitating teens’ personal expression and creativity, broadening the audience for their written material, and encouraging teens to write more often in more formats than may have been the case in prior generations.  At the same time, they describe the unique challenges of teaching writing in the digital age, including the “creep” of informal style into formal writing assignments and the need to better educate students about issues such as plagiarism and fair use.

The AP and NWP teachers surveyed see today’s digital tools having tangible, beneficial impacts on student writing

Overall, these AP and NWP teachers see digital technologies benefitting student writing in several ways:

• 96% agree (including 52% who strongly agree) that digital technologies “allow students to share their work with a wider and more varied audience”
• 79% agree (23% strongly agree) that these tools “encourage greater collaboration among students”
• 78% agree (26% strongly agree) that digital technologies “encourage student creativity and personal expression”

The combined effect of these impacts, according to this group of AP and NWP teachers, is a greater investment among students in what they write and greater engagement in the writing process.

At the same time, they worry that students’ use of digital tools is having some undesirable effects on their writing, including the “creep” of informal language and style into formal writing

In focus groups, these AP and NWP teachers shared some concerns and challenges they face teaching writing in today’s digital environment.  Among them are:

• an increasingly ambiguous line between “formal” and “informal” writing and the tendency of some students to use informal language and style in formal writing assignments
• the increasing need to educate students about writing for different audiences using different “voices” and “registers”
• the general cultural emphasis on truncated forms of expression, which some feel are hindering students willingness and ability to write longer texts and to think critically about complicated topics
• disparate access to and skill with digital tools among their students
• challenging the “digital tool as toy” approach many students develop in their introduction to digital tools as young children

Survey results reflect many of these concerns, though teachers are sometimes divided on the role digital tools play in these trends.  Specifically:

• 68% say that digital tools make students more likely—as opposed to less likely or having no impact—to take shortcuts and not put effort into their writing
• 46% say these tools make students more likely to “write too fast and be careless”
• Yet, while 40% say today’s digital technologies make students more likely to “use poor spelling and grammar” another 38% say they make students LESS likely to do this

Overall, these AP and NWP teachers give their students’ writing skills modest marks, and see areas that need attention

Asked to assess their students’ performance on nine specific writing skills, AP and NWP tended to rate their students “good” or “fair” as opposed to “excellent” or “very good.”  Students were given the best ratings on their ability to “effectively organize and structure writing assignments” with 24% of teachers describing their students as “excellent” or “very good” in this area. Students received similar ratings on their ability to “understand and consider multiple viewpoints on a particular topic or issue.”  But ratings were less positive for synthesizing material into a cohesive piece of work, using appropriate tone and style, and constructing a strong argument.

These AP and NWP teachers gave students the lowest ratings when it comes to “navigating issues of fair use and copyright in composition” and “reading and digesting long or complicated texts.”  On both measures, more than two-thirds of these teachers rated students “fair” or “poor.”

Majorities of these teachers incorporate lessons about fair use, copyright, plagiarism, and citation in their teaching to address students’ deficiencies in these areas

In addition to giving students low ratings on their understanding of fair use and copyright, a majority of AP and NWP teachers also say students are not performing well when it comes to “appropriately citing and/or referencing content” in their work.  This is fairly common concern among the teachers in the study, who note how easy it is for students today to copy and paste others’ work into their own and how difficult it often is to determine the actual source of much of the content they find online.  Reflecting how critical these teachers view these skills:

• 88% (across all subjects) spend class time “discussing with students the concepts of citation and plagiarism”
• 75% (across all subjects) spend class time “discussing with students the concepts of fair use and copyright”

A plurality of AP and NWP teachers across all subjects say digital tools make teaching writing easier

Despite some challenges, 50% of these teachers (across all subjects) say the internet and digital tools make it easier for them to teach writing, while just 18% say digital technologies make teaching writing more difficult.  The remaining 31% see no real impact.

Positive perceptions of the potential for digital tools to aid educators in teaching writing are reflected in practice:

• 52% of AP and NWP teachers say they or their students use interactive whiteboards in their classes
• 40% have students share their work on wikis, websites or blogs
• 36% have students edit or revise their own work and 29% have students edit others’ work using collaborative web-based tools such as GoogleDocs

In focus groups, teachers gave a multitude of examples of the value of these collaborative tools, not only in teaching more technical aspects of writing but also in being able to “see their students thinking” and work alongside students in the writing process.  Moreover, 56% say digital tools make their students more likely to write well because they can revise their work easily.

These middle and high school teachers continue to place tremendous value on “formal writing”

While they see writing forms and styles expanding in the digital world, AP and NWP teachers continue to place tremendous value on “formal writing” and try to use digital tools to impart fundamental writing skills they feel students need.  Nine in ten (92%) describe formal writing assignments as an ��essential” part of the learning process, and 91% say that “writing effectively” is an “essential” skill students need for future success.

More than half (58%) have students write short essays or responses on a weekly basis, and 77% assigned at least one research paper during the 2011-2012 academic year.  In addition, 41% of AP and NWP teachers have students write weekly journal entries, and 78% had their students create a multimedia or mixed media piece in the academic year prior to the survey.

Almost all AP and NWP teachers surveyed (94%) encourage students to do some of their writing by hand

Alongside the use of digital tools to promote better writing, almost all AP and NWP teachers surveyed say they encourage their students to do at least some writing by hand.  Their reasons are varied, but many teachers noted that because students are required to write by hand on standardized tests, it is a critical skill for them to have.  This is particularly true for AP teachers, who must prepare students to take AP exams with pencil and paper.  Other teachers say they feel students do more active thinking, synthesizing, and editing when writing by hand, and writing by hand discourages any temptation to copy and paste others’ work.

About this Study

The basics of the survey

These are among the main findings of an online survey of a non-probability sample of 2,462 middle and high school teachers currently teaching in the U.S., Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, conducted between March 7 and April 23, 2012.  Some 1,750 of the teachers are drawn from a sample of advanced placement (AP) high school teachers, while the remaining 712 are from a sample of National Writing Project teachers.  Survey findings are complemented by insights from a series of online and in-person focus groups with middle and high school teachers and students in grades 9-12, conducted between November, 2011 and February, 2012.

This particular sample is quite diverse geographically, by subject matter taught, and by school size and community characteristics.  But it skews towards educators who teach some of the most academically successful students in the country. Thus, the findings reported here reflect the realities of their special place in American education, and are not necessarily representative of all teachers in all schools. At the same time, these findings are especially powerful given that these teachers’ observations and judgments emerge from some of the nation’s most advanced classrooms.

In addition to the survey, Pew Internet conducted a series of online and offline focus groups with middle and high school teachers and some of their students and their voices are included in this report.

The study was designed to explore teachers’ views of the ways today’s digital environment is shaping the research and writing habits of middle and high school students, as well as teachers’ own technology use and their efforts to incorporate new digital tools into their classrooms.

About the data collection

Data collection was conducted in two phases.  In phase one, Pew Internet conducted two online and one in-person focus group with middle and high school teachers; focus group participants included Advanced Placement (AP) teachers, teachers who had participated in the National Writing Project’s Summer Institute (NWP), as well as teachers at a College Board school in the Northeast U.S.  Two in-person focus groups were also conducted with students in grades 9-12 from the same College Board school.   The goal of these discussions was to hear teachers and students talk about, in their own words, the different ways they feel digital technologies such as the internet, search engines, social media, and cell phones are shaping students’ research and writing habits and skills.  Teachers were asked to speak in depth about teaching research and writing to middle and high school students today, the challenges they encounter, and how they incorporate digital technologies into their classrooms and assignments.

Focus group discussions were instrumental in developing a 30-minute online survey, which was administered in phase two of the research to a national sample of middle and high school teachers.  The survey results reported here are based on a non-probability sample of 2,462 middle and high school teachers currently teaching in the U.S., Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.  Of these 2,462 teachers, 2,067 completed the entire survey; all percentages reported are based on those answering each question.  The sample is not a probability sample of all teachers because it was not practical to assemble a sampling frame of this population. Instead, two large lists of teachers were assembled: one included 42,879 AP teachers who had agreed to allow the College Board to contact them (about one-third of all AP teachers), while the other was a list of 5,869 teachers who participated in the National Writing Project’s Summer Institute during 2007-2011 and who were not already part of the AP sample. A stratified random sample of 16,721 AP teachers was drawn from the AP teacher list, based on subject taught, state, and grade level, while all members of the NWP list were included in the final sample.

The online survey was conducted from March 7–April 23, 2012.  More details on how the survey and focus groups were conducted are included in the Methodology section at the end of this report, along with focus group discussion guides and the survey instrument.

There are several important ways the teachers who participated in the survey are unique, which should be considered when interpreting the results reported here.  First, 95% of the teachers who participated in the survey teach in public schools, thus the findings reported here reflect that environment almost exclusively.  In addition, almost one-third of the sample (NWP Summer Institute teachers) has received extensive training in how to effectively teach writing in today’s digital environment.  The National Writing Project’s mission is to provide professional development, resources and support to teachers to improve the teaching of writing in today’s schools.   The NWP teachers included here are what the organization terms “teacher-consultants” who have attended the Summer Institute and provide local leadership to other teachers.  Research has shown significant gains in the writing performance of students who are taught by these teachers.¹

Moreover, the majority of teachers participating in the survey (56%) currently teach AP, honors, and/or accelerated courses, thus the population of middle and high school students they work with skews heavily toward the highest achievers.  These teachers and their students may have resources and support available to them—particularly in terms of specialized training and access to digital tools—that are not available in all educational settings.  Thus, the population of teachers participating in this research might best be considered “leading edge teachers” who are actively involved with the College Board and/or the National Writing Project and are therefore beneficiaries of resources and training not common to all teachers.  It is likely that teachers in this study are developing some of the more innovative pedagogical approaches to teaching research and writing in today’s digital environment, and are incorporating classroom technology in ways that are not typical of the entire population of middle and high school teachers in the U.S.  Survey findings represent the attitudes and behaviors of this particular group of teachers only, and are not representative of the entire population of U.S. middle and high school teachers.

Every effort was made to administer the survey to as broad a group of educators as possible from the sample files being used.  As a group, the 2,462 teachers participating in the survey comprise a wide range of subject areas, experience levels, geographic regions, school type and socioeconomic level, and community type (detailed sample characteristics are available in the Methods section of this report).  The sample includes teachers from all 50 states, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.  All teachers who participated in the survey teach in physical schools and classrooms, as opposed to teaching online or virtual courses.

English/language arts teachers make up a significant portion of the sample (36%), reflecting the intentional design of the study, but history, social science, math, science, foreign language, art, and music teachers are also represented.  About one in ten teachers participating in the survey are middle school teachers, while 91% currently teach grades 9-12.  There is wide distribution across school size and students’ socioeconomic status, though half of the teachers participating in the survey report teaching in a small city or suburb.  There is also a wide distribution in the age and experience levels of participating teachers.  The survey sample is 71% female.

About the Pew Research Center’s Internet & American Life Project

The Pew Research Center’s Internet & American Life Project is one of seven projects that make up the Pew Research Center, a nonpartisan, nonprofit “fact tank” that provides information on the issues, attitudes and trends shaping America and the world. The Project produces reports exploring the impact of the internet on families, communities, work and home, daily life, education, health care, and civic and political life. The Pew Internet Project takes no positions on policy issues related to the internet or other communications technologies. It does not endorse technologies, industry sectors, companies, nonprofit organizations, or individuals. While we thank our research partners for their helpful guidance, the Pew Internet Project had full control over the design, implementation, analysis and writing of this survey and report.

About the National Writing Project

The National Writing Project (NWP) is a nationwide network of educators working together to improve the teaching of writing in the nation’s schools and in other settings. NWP provides high-quality professional development programs to teachers in a variety of disciplines and at all levels, from early childhood through university. Through its nearly 200 university-based sites serving all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, NWP develops the leadership, programs and research needed for teachers to help students become successful writers and learners. For more information, visit www.nwp.org.

This report is the third installment of an expansive study of middle and high school teachers by the Pew Research Center’s Internet & American Life Project.  The study combined a national survey and focus groups to examine teachers’ perceptions of the impacts of a rapidly evolving technological environment on both their students and their role as educators.  Building on a decade of Pew Internet research on the growing use of the internet and digital tools among both U.S. adults and teens, this study explores the impact of these tools on students’ research and writing habits, as well as the extent to which teachers incorporate digital technologies into classroom pedagogy.

This report covers survey and focus group findings on how the internet and other digital technologies are shaping the way today’s middle and high school students write and think about writing, as well as how middle and high school teachers are using these tools to teach writing. Overall, data suggest that teachers view positively the impact of the internet and digital technologies on student writing, particularly the way it expands audience for students beyond just their teachers and provides more opportunities for writing on a daily basis.  Teachers report that interactive online tools have enhanced their ability to teach writing and allow them to work more collaboratively with their students.  At the same time, however, teachers see some downsides to learning how to write in a digital age, and as was the case with students’ research abilities, most teachers give their students only modest ratings when it comes to specific writing skills.

Adult and Teen Internet Use

The current study builds on Pew Internet’s extensive research on how U.S. adults and teens gather information online, communicate using digital tools, and use these tools for their own training and education.  Pew Internet’s prior surveys have shown that:

• Online information gathering (in the form of search engine use) tops the list of the most popular online activities, along with email²
• Adults as well as teens have become increasingly reliant on mobile tools, particularly smartphones, to communicate and engage with online content³
• Social networking has become one of the most popular online activities with teens and adults.  While teens and young adults initially led the foray into this online social milieu, the past several years have seen particular growth in social network site use among older adults⁴
• Both teens and adults are heavily engaged in consuming and curating online video and pictures, and often remix the content available online into their own creations⁵
• Texting has become the major form of communication among 12-17 year-olds in the U.S., and is growing dramatically among adults as well⁶

Given these trends, we felt it would be useful to examine how middle and high school teachers are experiencing these digital transformations in their classrooms.  These are important questions, as educators remain a main point of contact for teens growing up in a fairly new digital ecosystem. The extent to which their teachers use, understand, and are critical of or optimistic about these tools and their impact on learning all shape how often, and how effectively, digital tools are used in today’s classrooms.

This is the third of three major reports emerging from the study.  Issued in succession, the three reports have been guided by the following questions:

Report One:  How Do Teens ‘Do Research’ in Today’s Digital World? (released October 30, 2012⁷)

• How students define and conduct research in today’s tech environment
• If and how new technologies are changing how research is taught
• Whether and how the topics of digital literacy and information literacy are currently being taught in schools
• What are the key skills students need to learn to conduct effective research given today’s digital environment
• Potential changes in assessments, curriculum, and the school environment teachers feel are necessary in response to today’s evolving digital environment

Report Two:  Teachers and Technology (released February 28, 2013⁸)

• Teachers’ personal use of and attitudes toward different digital technologies
• Whether and how new technologies enable and enhance teacher professional development and collaboration
• The different ways digital technologies are being incorporated into classroom pedagogy
• School policy and resource issues affecting teachers’ abilities to incorporate new technologies into their classrooms
• How teachers experience and manage digital access issues among their students

Report Three:  The State of Teen Writing in Today’s Digital World

• The specific impacts of digital technologies on student writing skills and habits
• If and how new technologies encourage student collaboration, creativity, and personal expression
• If and how digital technologies are changing how writing is taught in middle and high school classrooms

AP and NWP teachers participating in the survey report giving students written assignments ranging from research papers to short responses, journaling, and creative writing.  The type and frequency of written assignments varies considerably by the subject being taught and grade level, but on the whole these AP and NWP teachers place tremendous value on formal written assignments.

These teachers also point out that “writing” can be defined more broadly than written work assigned in an academic setting.  In focus groups, many teachers noted that in addition to the “formal” writing students do for class, they are engaged in many forms of writing outside of the classroom, much of it using digital tools and platforms such as texting and online social networking.  How to define these new types of writing and determining what impact they have on the “formal writing” students do in class remains an open question for many of these teachers.  But most agree that among students, “writing” continues to be defined as assignments they are required to do for school, as opposed to textual expression they engage in on their own time.

The writing assignments AP and NWP teachers give their students

The survey quantified what types of writing exercises AP and NWP teachers assign to their middle and high school students.  As the graphic below suggests, among this group of teachers, short essays and journaling are the most commonly assigned writing tasks.  More than half of the sample (58%) report having their students write short essays, short responses, or opinion pieces at least once a week.  Four in ten (41%) have students journal on a weekly basis.

Research papers, multimedia assignments, and creative writing in the form of plays or short stories, while not assigned by many teachers on a weekly basis, are assigned at some point during the academic year by most of these AP and NWP teachers. Just over three-quarters report having students complete a research paper (77%) or a multimedia project (77%) at some point during the current academic year.  Two-thirds (66%) have students engage in creative writing, such as poetry, a play, a short story or piece of fiction, at least once a year.

In contrast, more specialized types of writing assignments such as writing out mathematical problems or proofs, writing up labs, writing computer programs, designing computer games, and writing music or lyrics are assigned rarely, if ever, by most AP and NWP teachers surveyed.

The type and frequency of written work assigned is obviously highly dependent on the subject matter being taught.  Among Math teachers, for example, 81% report having students write out mathematical problems, proofs or concepts on at least a weekly basis.  And among science teachers, 51% have students write up labs at least once a week and 56% have students write out mathematical concepts or problems.  All of these percentages are much higher than those for teachers of other subjects.

In addition, while 94% of English teachers and 83% of history/social studies teachers had their students write a research paper in the 2011-2012 academic year, that figure is 68% among science teachers and 36% among math teachers.  A similar pattern emerges for multimedia or mixed media assignments, with English (84%) and history/social studies (82%) teachers most likely and math teachers least likely (51%) to have given their students this type of assignment in the prior academic year. Science teachers (70%) fall in the middle.

How do teachers—and students—define “writing” in the digital world?

A fundamental question posed to the AP and NWP teachers in the current study is how they and their students define “writing.”  Specifically, we asked teachers which forms of writing in the digital age—academic writing assignments, texting, social network site posts, blogs, tweets, etc.— are “writing” in their eyes, and which are not?  In a 2008 Pew Internet survey of teens on this topic, the consensus among 12-17 year-olds was that there is a fundamental distinction between their digital communications with friends and family and the more formal writing they do for school or for their own purposes.  Only the latter is considered “writing” in teens’ eyes.⁹ Survey and focus group findings in the current study indicate this perception has not changed, either among students or their teachers, and that there remains a fairly strong conceptual divide between “formal” and “informal” writing.  For both groups, much day-to-day digital communication falls into the latter category.

Asked in focus groups to clarify what, specifically, they consider “writing,” the majority of teachers indicated that “formal writing” and “creative writing” fit their definition of “writing.”  Slightly fewer said they would classify “blogging” as writing, and very few said they would consider texting as a form of writing. Asked how they thought students would categorize these same writing forms, the results are comparable.  Most of these teachers do not think their students consider texting writing, but rather confine their definition of “writing” to those exercises they are required to do for school.  A handful of teachers went even further, saying that some students define “writing” only as something that requires them to use complete sentences.

While most AP and NWP teachers in the focus groups said they do not consider texting, blogging, or micro-blogging (posting on social network sites) “writing” in the traditional sense, they believe these digital formats do spur thinking and encourage communication among their students, which may lead to deeper thinking and self-expression. Several teachers characterized these shorter online posts as “pre-writing” that may get a student engaged in a topic or discourse enough to want to write a longer piece about it or explore it further.  In some teachers’ eyes, these digital forms of expression are building blocks for lengthier, more formal writing.

Teachers in the study say today’s students are expressing themselves more, and more often

Though most AP and NWP teachers who participated in the study do not characterize activities such as texting, tweeting, blogging or micro-blogging on social network sites as “writing” in the strictest sense, there is almost universal agreement among them that the digital ecology in which today’s teens live provides many more avenues for personal expression.  In addition, most agree that many forms of personal expression are more accessible to the average student than has been the case for past generations.  Ultimately, most of these teachers see their students expressing themselves in text (and other formats) more so than was the case when they themselves were in middle and high school.  Asked in focus groups, if students today simply write more, in sheer quantity, most participating AP and NWP teachers agree this is the case.

92% of AP and NWP teachers surveyed describe writing assignments as “essential” to the formal learning process, and “writing effectively” tops their list of skills students need to be successful in life

The survey gauged AP and NWP teachers’ sense of the overall importance of incorporating writing into formal learning today, and asked them to rank the value of effective writing vis a vis other skills students may need to be successful in life.  The vast majority (92%) say the incorporation of writing assignments in formal learning is “essential,” with another 7% saying it is “important, but not essential.”  Only 11 teachers out of more than 2,000 describe the incorporation of writing assignments into formal learning as “only somewhat important” or “not important.”

These results are not surprising, given the large number of writing teachers in the sample and the focus on formal writing in much of the U.S. educational system.  But the high value placed on writing extends across AP and NWP teachers of all subjects.  While 99% of English teachers in the sample say that writing assignments are essential to the formal learning process, the same is true for 93% of history/social studies teachers, 86% of science teachers, and 78% of math teachers.

Asked to place a value on various skills today’s students may need in the future, “writing effectively” tops the list of essential skills, along with “judging the quality of information.”¹⁰ Each of these skills is described as “essential” by 91% of AP and NWP teachers surveyed.  Again, while large majorities of teachers of all subjects respond this way, English teachers are slightly more likely than others to say that “writing effectively” is an “essential” skill for students’ future success.

Other skills relevant to the current digital culture also rank high as life skills, with large majorities of these teachers saying that “behaving responsibly online” (85%) and “understanding privacy issues surrounding online and digital content” (78%) are “essential” to students’ success later in life. Skills that fewer of these AP and NWP teachers view as essential for students’ success in life include “presenting themselves effectively in online social networking sites” and “working with audio, video, or graphic content.” Fewer than one in three AP and NWP teachers in the sample describes either of these skills as “essential” to their students’ futures, though pluralities do describe each of these skills “important, but not essential.”

Do AP and NWP teachers see continued value in longer writing assignments?

The tremendous value most AP and NWP teachers place on writing of all forms, and particularly “formal” writing, was reflected throughout focus group discussions.  For some AP and NWP teachers, the extent to which today’s middle and high school students engage in what many see as “informal” writing means that “formal” writing assignments are more critical than ever.  Moreover, many see tremendous value in longer writing assignments that require students to organize their thoughts and fully develop complex ideas (particularly because they often have to present ideas on standardized tests in this format).  They see longer, formal writing assignments as an important juxtaposition to the more informal and often more truncated styles of expression in which their students regularly engage.  Throughout focus groups, AP and NWP teachers expressed the belief that students must master all styles of writing in order to be successful across social domains and to communicate with different audiences.

While many focus group participants stressed the importance of learning to write in multiple styles—including more “formal” styles—and to write lengthier pieces on complex topics, other teachers questioned the “term paper mentality” and the tendency of some educators to equate length of assignment with complexity of thought.  Some AP and NWP teachers in the study debated the value of longer textual expression today, not just for students but for society as a whole. As many digital tools encourage shorter, more concise expression, these teachers questioned whether mastering more traditional writing styles will be critical for their students moving forward.  While these skills may be valued in standardized testing and in the college and university settings, there was some debate about how useful these skills are beyond those two arenas. Moreover, some teachers questioned whether lengthy writing assignments are the most effective format for teaching students specific writing skills.

Majorities of AP and NWP teachers in the study see digital tools having several distinct, beneficial impacts on student writing, including providing a broader audience for student work, encouraging creativity and personal expression in a multitude of formats, and offering more opportunities for collaboration, interaction and feedback.  Many teachers say that taken together, these three impacts of digital technologies make writing both more meaningful and less intimidating for many students, while also encouraging greater commitment to, and personal investment in, what they produce.

Yet many of these AP and NWP teachers also express concerns about how digital tools and platforms are shaping the way their students approach writing.  Of most concern are what some perceive as diminishing grammatical skills and vocabulary, which they attribute largely to the informal writing in which today’s students are heavily engaged.  In addition, some AP and NWP teachers worry that rather than encourage greater understanding of and appreciation for different audiences, digital tools actually blur the boundaries between formal and informal audiences and discourage student sensitivity to these distinctions.  Finally, many of these middle and high school teachers worry that their students are losing the ability to develop, organize and express complex thoughts because they generally communicate in more concise forms of expression.

Majorities of AP and NWP teachers see digital tools benefiting student writing in several key ways

Asked whether they agree or disagree with a series of statements about potential impacts digital tools may be having on today’s students, majorities of AP and NWP teachers in this sample agree that:

• Today’s digital technologies allow students to “share their work with a wider and more varied audience” (52% strongly agree, 44% agree)
• Today’s digital technologies “encourage student creativity and personal expression” (26% strongly agree, 52% agree)
• Today’s digital technologies “encourage greater collaboration among students” (23% strongly agree, 56% agree)

In focus groups, teachers spoke at length about how these three perceived impacts benefit student writing.  Many said that not only are their students are doing considerably more writing outside of the classroom than they would without these digital tools, but they have the unique experience of writing for broad and varied audiences because of the internet. Exposing student writers to a wider audience via online platforms is a considerable change from a time when only one’s teacher and perhaps a few classmates would read a student’s writing.

Not only do many of these teachers use online platforms such as GoogleDocs to have students edit each others’ work in a public way, but many have students work together on Wikis, use whiteboards to share and edit student work in class, and have students “publish” their work in other online forums.  While teachers acknowledge that some middle and high school students may struggle in this more public learning environment, overall these AP and NWP teachers felt that more students benefited from writing for a broader audience than were inhibited by it.  Many of these teachers see exposure to a wider audience as an opportunity for students to get more diverse feedback on their work, which encourages them to think more consciously about audience as they write, and in turn leads to greater investment in what is written.

In addition, many AP and NWP teachers noted that digital tools encourage personal expression in many forms, not just “writing.”  This benefits students who might otherwise struggle to express themselves in formal writing, and pushes those more comfortable with self-expression to be even more creative.  According to these teachers, the many diverse forms of self-expression available today make the process of communicating one’s ideas less intimidating and more accessible for students today.  Several teachers noted that for many students, digital tools take the “scary” factor out of “formal writing.”

Overall, when these three key impacts are taken together – a broader audience, increased opportunities for creativity and personal expression, and greater collaboration – the vast majority of AP and NWP teachers participating in the study see a tremendous upside to writing in the digital age.  In focus groups, teachers repeatedly used the words “investment” and “engagement” to describe the impact they see digital tools having on student writing.

Along with these benefits, 68% of these AP and NWP teachers say digital tools make students more likely to take shortcuts and not put effort into their writing

Asked about specific impacts digital tools may have on student writing, AP and NWP teachers in this sample expressed the greatest concern about these tools increasing the likelihood their students will “take shortcuts and not put effort into their writing.”  Just over two-thirds of these AP and NWP teachers (68%) say that digital tools are having this impact.  Fewer teachers, but still a sizeable percentage, also say these tools make students more likely to “write too fast and be careless” (46%) and more likely to “use poor spelling and grammar” (40%).  (On the latter measure, teachers are fairly divided, with 38% saying digital tools make students LESS likely to use poor spelling and grammar—an indication of the tension between the positive and negative effects of automated spellcheck and grammar check.)

This question was originally posed in a 2007 Pew Internet nationally representative telephone survey of teens and their parents.  At that time, 49% of teens 12-17 said the use of computers and other digital tools for writing made them more likely to take shortcuts and not put effort into their writing, and 41% said that digital tools make them more likely to write too fast or be careless. In addition, 42% said these tools make them more likely to use poor spelling or grammar. Parents’ views in the 2007 survey generally aligned with those of their teens.¹¹

English/language arts teachers have the most positive view of the impact of digital tools on student writing

On all three of these measures, English teachers in the sample express the most positive view of the impact of digital tools.  They are the least likely to say that digital tools make students more likely to take shortcuts in their writing, use poor spelling or grammar, or write too fast and be careless.

Conversely, most AP and NWP teachers surveyed (56%) say digital tools also make students more likely to revise and edit their work

Reflecting the mixed impact teachers see digital tools having on student writing habits, many note potential positive impacts as well.  More than half of the AP and NWP teachers in the sample feel these technologies increase the likelihood their students will revise and edit their work. In 2007, a similar percentage of teens (59%) said this was the case.  Math (64%) and English/language arts (60%) teachers are more likely than both science (53%) and history/social studies (48%) teachers to feel that digital tools are having this positive effect on student writing.

Also on the positive side, a plurality of teachers (50%) say digital tools make students more likely to “be creative,” a finding which is consistent across AP and NWP teachers of different subjects.  Yet on other potential impacts, these AP and NWP teachers are divided.  For example, 32% of AP and NWP teachers surveyed say today’s digital tools make students MORE likely to communicate well, but almost as many (28%) say these tools make students LESS likely to communicate well.

Despite lengthy discussion in focus groups about the benefit of learning to write for varied audiences in today’s digital ecology, just 24% of AP and NWP teachers feel that digital tools make today’s students MORE likely to write in multiple genres and styles.  Instead, most teachers (63%) say digital tools have no impact on student writing in this regard.

Focus group discussions revealed some additional concerns about the impact of digital tools on student writing

In addition to the concerns captured in the survey of AP and NWP teachers, focus group discussions revealed other concerns these teachers have about the potential impact of digital tools on student writing.  In these discussions, three main concerns emerged:

• diminishing grammatical skills and vocabulary,
• an increasingly blurry line between formal and informal writing, resulting in the creep of “text speak” into formal writing, and
• a general emphasis on short forms of expression

As use of today’s digital technologies—including the internet, cell phones and social networking sites—becomes more prevalent in the classroom and in students’ personal lives,¹² some AP and NWP teachers say the overall quality of student writing is declining. The clearest evidence they point to is the “creep” of more casual language and grammar (sometimes referred to as “textspeak”) into students’ academic writing.  Because more informal settings such as texting and social network site posts have distinct norms about what is acceptable (such as incomplete sentences, misspellings, widespread use of abbreviations, a generally informal tone), some AP and NWP teachers worry that they ultimately undermine students’ formal writing.

While some AP and NWP teachers in the study described these informal expressions as a unique language or register that can benefit student self-expression when used in the right venue, others worry that their students are increasingly unable to draw a distinction between informal and formal writing. In focus groups, teachers were divided as to whether the transference of rules and norms from one writing domain to another was the result of students simply not recognizing the distinction across domains, or if it was conscious disregard for those distinctions.

In addition, some AP and NWP teachers note a potential decline in vocabulary and grammatical skills among their students, exacerbated by an overreliance on automated grammar, spellcheck and dictionary tools built into word processing programs.  While these tools have unquestionably made word processing faster and easier, and can benefit students when used thoughtfully, some teachers worry they can also undermine students’ understanding of and attention to basic writing principles.

Automated word processing tools, and the speed that accompanies them,may contribute to an additional concern expressed by AP and NWP teachers—a lack of patience among some students to execute longer writing assignments.  Some teachers in the study question whether a growing cultural emphasis on speed and on truncated forms of expression (from tweets to status updates to blog posts) has conditioned students today to write, and think, in morselized, less developed pieces.  These teachers are particularly concerned that what appears as impatience or carelessness is actually a diminishing set of cognitive skills in this area, or a lack of appreciation for subtly constructed arguments.

Asked to assess their students’ current writing skills, these AP and NWP teachers give students modest ratings.  Despite seeing many positive effects of today’s digital tools on student writing, teachers rate the actual writing skills of their students as “good” or “fair” in most cases, rather than “excellent” or “very good.”  On each of nine specific writing skills asked about, a majority of these middle and high school teachers rate students “good” or “fair,” indicating most view their students’ writing skills as average and needing improvement.

Teachers rate most students’ writing skills “good” or “fair”

Of nine specific skills asked about in the survey, AP and NWP teachers rated students highest on their ability to “effectively organize and structure writing assignments.”  About one-quarter of these teachers describe their students as very good (21%) or excellent (3%) when it comes to this aspect of writing.  In addition, about one in five teachers rate their students very good (18%) or excellent (3%) when it comes to “understanding and considering multiple viewpoints on a particular topic or issue.”  Yet even for these top rated skills, more teachers describe their students’ performances as “fair” or “poor” than as “very good” or “excellent.”  This was true of all nine writing skills asked about in the survey—more teachers rate their students at the bottom of the scale than at the top.

Of particular concern to these teachers is their students’ ability to “read and digest long or complicated texts” and to “navigate issues of fair use and copyright in composition.”  On both of these measures, more than two-thirds of AP and NWP teachers in the sample describe their students’ performance as “fair” or “poor.”  In addition, 57% of these teachers rate students “fair” or “poor” on “appropriately citing and/or referencing content,” and half give their students low ratings on “giving constructive feedback on other students’ work” and “constructing a strong argument.”

When it comes to rating students’ writing skills, it is the English/language arts teachers among this sample of AP and NWP teachers who again have a more positive view.  They were more likely than teachers of other subjects to give their students ratings of “excellent” or “very good” on most of the specific writing skills asked about.

A large majority of AP and NWP teachers surveyed devote class time to teaching about fair use, copyright, and citation

As noted above, the skill for which these AP and NWP teachers give students the lowest rating is “navigating issues of fair use and copyright in composition” and most of these teachers also rate their students “fair” or “poor” on their ability to “appropriately cite and/or reference content.”  With so much material available publicly in digital form, the temptation for students to copy and paste others’ work into their own is a concern for many teachers, as is the difficulty many students have discerning the source of material they find online and citing that source correctly.

Clearly, AP and NWP teachers feel students need to improve in these areas, and large majorities are devoting class time to developing these skills.  Across teachers of all subjects, 88% spend class time discussing with students the concepts of citation and plagiarism, and 75% report using class time to discuss the concepts of fair use and copyright.  The focus and time spent on these issues reflects not only one of the key skills teachers say students need to improve, but also one of the unique challenges these educators face teaching writing in the digital age.

While overall, large majorities of this group of AP and NWP teachers report spending class time teaching about both fair use and plagiarism, the burden falls mainly to English/language arts teachers.  Virtually all of the English/language arts teachers surveyed (99%) spend class time teaching their students about plagiarism and proper citation, while 83% work with students on understanding the concepts of fair use and copyright.

In focus group discussions, teachers disagreed as to whether most plagiarism and violations of fair use are conscious choices to misuse content based on willful disregard or laziness, or if these concepts are generally misunderstood by well-meaning students. Some AP and NWP teachers questioned their own understanding of these complicated and ever-changing concepts—as well as the norms that stem from them—and said they were not surprised to see middle and high school students struggle with them.

Many AP and NWP teachers in the sample also use digital tools to combat plagiarism among their students

The AP and NWP teachers surveyed also note the value of digital tools in helping them detect and combat plagiarism by their students.  This “digital monitoring” can be done in many ways, the most common being requiring students to submit all assignments in digital form so that they can be easily checked for lifted passages using tools such as Turnitin.com.  Survey data reveal that 71% of this group of AP and NWP teachers check student work for plagiarism using tools like Turnitin.com and/or entering student text into search engines.

Given the myriad ways teachers see digital tools shaping how students approach writing, it is critical to understand how the digital ecosystem is shaping how writing is taught in schools today. On the whole, AP and NWP teachers in the study say that digital tools make teaching writing easier, particularly collaborative online platforms that allow them to work alongside students in the editing process and observe their students’ thinking and work in progress.  In focus groups, these middle and high school teachers shared countless examples of the unique ways they use digital tools—ranging from whiteboards to GoogleDocs to wikis—to teach key writing skills.  Such lessons are used to address all aspects of writing, including grammar, organization, voice, tone, critical thinking, and persuasion.

AP and NWP teachers surveyed use a wide range of digital tools to teach writing

It was evident in focus groups that in addition to the many impacts of digital technologies on student writing, these tools also have a considerable and largely positive impact on AP and NWP teachers’ perceptions of their own ability to teach writing effectively.  Many of these teachers say interactive technologies are currently part of their learning environments, including using interactive whiteboards (52%), having students develop, share or post their work on a website, wiki or blog (40%), and having students edit their own work (36%) or others’ work (29%) using collaborative web-based tools such as GoogleDocs and Moodle.

The use of e-readers and cell phones as a learning tool varies by the subject matter being taught.  It is not surprising that English and language arts teachers are the most likely to report e-readers being part of the learning environment.  Math teachers, in contrast, are particularly unlikely to say that they or their students use cell phones in the learning process.

Likewise, some groups of AP and NWP teachers are more likely than others to employ more collaborative online tools. For instance, the youngest teachers in this group (those under age 35) are the most likely to have students develop or share work on a website, wiki or blog (45% v. 34% of teachers age 55 and older).  They are also more likely than the oldest teachers to have students participate in online discussions (45% v. 32% of teachers age 55 and older) and use collaborative web-based tools such as GoogleDocs to edit work (41% v. 34% of teachers age 55 and older).  Middle school teachers (those teaching grades 6-8) are the most likely to have students develop and share work on wikis, webpages or blogs. Just under half of middle school teachers (47%) have their students use these collaborative tools, compared with 41% of 9th-10^th grade teachers and 35% of 11^th-12^th grade teachers.

One could argue that some subjects lend themselves more easily to these types of online collaborative tools, and survey results reflect this.  English teachers are the most likely to say they have students use these types of tools, often by a wide margin over teachers of other subjects.  Conversely, math teachers are least likely to make use of these tools.

Overall, teachers say digital tools have made teaching writing easier

In both the survey and the focus groups, AP and NWP teachers described the impact of utilizing digital tools in the teaching process in largely positive terms.  Overall, half of the teachers who completed the survey said that today’s digital technologies make it EASIER to shape or improve student writing, while just 18% said they make it MORE DIFFICULT.

More experienced teachers are no more or less likely than their younger colleagues to say that digital tools make it easier for them to shape student writing.  The only striking difference among teachers is again in comparing teachers of different subject matters.  Among these AP and NWP teacher, English/language arts teachers (64%) are much more likely than teachers of math (32%), science (38%) and history/social studies (45%) to say digital tools make teaching writing easier.

This positive sentiment about the impact of digital technologies on teaching writing was also reflected in many focus groups comments.  In general, teachers noted how these technologies generally enabled them to “see their students thinking,” and move from talking about writing with their students to actually manipulating student writing in an interactive way.  They also lauded these technologies for giving students a “hands on” experience in editing their own and others’ writing.

Asked to describe how they teach writing, focus group participants said that the basics of writing are taught in English classes, and then skills are honed in other classes through practice. Teachers try to provide students with examples of good and poor writing, and will assign essays, papers, and free response questions throughout the year to give students the opportunity to work on their writing skills.  Many noted the value of digital tools to provide students with writing examples, both good and bad; tools most commonly noted for this purpose were smart boards and teaching platforms such as Elmo and WebAssign.

Thus, beyond simply providing students more opportunities to practice their writing skills, teachers noted that digital tools can be critically important in providing specific feedback to students on where and how their writing can improve.  Many felt this interactive feedback helps make students more receptive to improving their writing.  As students implement suggested changes in their writing, they (students) begin to see improvements and start to gain confidence.  Moreover, by working on both their own and others’ work, they learn to identify and appreciate good writing.  This is where teachers in the study see digital tools having the biggest impact.

At the same time they use digital tools to teach writing, 94% of AP and NWP teachers surveyed encourage their students to do at least some of their writing by hand

In conjunction with the extensive use of digital tools in many classrooms, almost all of the AP and NWP teachers in the sample say they encourage their students to do at least some of their writing by hand.  Their reasons vary, but in focus groups many teachers noted that because students are required to write by hand on standardized tests, it continues to be a critical skill for them to have.  This is particularly true for AP teachers, who must prepare students to take AP exams with pencil and paper.

In focus groups, others expressed the belief that students do more active thinking, synthesizing, and editing when writing by hand.  Because of the temptation online to copy and paste others’ work into their own, some teachers said they feel the only way to ensure their students are original thinkers is to have them complete writing assignments entirely without the aid of the internet and digital tools.

Still others say they have found that not all of their students are comfortable writing digitally.  A common assumption about the current generation of middle and high school students—popularly referred to as “digital natives”—is that they all enjoy and are comfortable with using digital tools.  Yet some AP and NWP teachers pointed out this is not the case, and that some of their students are more effective or more comfortable writers when writing by hand with pencil or paper.

Finally, there was a small group of teachers in the study who do not see enough added value in digital tools to incorporate them into the teaching process.  Where teaching writing is concerned, these AP and NWP teachers feel that tried and true methods continue to be the most effective.

Additional challenges faced teaching writing in today’s digital environment

While half of the teachers surveyed report that digital tools make teaching writing EASIER, 18% report that they make the task more difficult.  The survey asked teachers to tell us the biggest challenge they face teaching writing today, and several core themes emerged:

• disparate access to digital tools and widely varying skill levels among students
• a “digital tools as toy” mentality among students
• a lack of critical thinking skills in their middle and high school students
• a limited definition among students of what constitutes “writing”

The first theme, disparate access to digital tools across schools and among students, pervaded survey findings, with teachers of low income students reporting very different attitudes toward and impacts of the use of digital tools among their students.  The topic of persisting digital divides in the educational arena was covered in depth in the second report in this series¹³, which discussed how teachers of the lowest income students not only worry that their students do not have the access to digital tools they need at home or at school, but that teachers at those schools are not receiving adequate support and training in how to use these tools effectively in the classroom.  Together, many teachers say, these disparities are creating a wider gap between more advantaged and less advantaged schools and school districts.

However, in addition to disparate access to digital tools, AP and NWP teachers point to widely varying tech skill levels students bring with them to the classroom.  While some students have advanced tech skills and are very comfortable working with digital tools, others lack exposure or do not share the same comfort level.  The assumption that all children who make up the generation widely referred to as “digital natives” are equally comfortable with and skilled in the use of the latest digital tools can be very damaging, these AP and NWP teachers noted.  They often must remind themselves this is the case as they create assignments and decide which tools to use in their classes, and often devote class time covering what many would consider basic tech skills in order to ensure all students are on a level playing field.

Many of these AP and NWP teachers also noted the challenge they face shifting students’ perceptions of digital tools as “toys” to be used for social activities to viewing digital tools as important parts of the learning process.  Several teachers described the “tool as toy” mentality many children develop through their early exposure to digital technologies at home.  A child’s first experience with these technologies is often in the realm of play, entertainment, and communication with loved ones, which encourages the perception of digital tools as useful only for these tasks.  When AP and NWP teachers use digital tools such as cell phones as a learning device in class, they note, it is not uncommon to have to “retrain” their students to see these devices as learning tools.

Many of these teachers expressed the belief that teaching writing is less about the actual writing mechanics and more about the students’ ability to think critically.  In focus groups, several teachers said they find today’s students so rushed in everything they do, and so accustomed to getting and processing information quickly, that they often approach the organization of their thoughts for a writing assignment the same way.  Many teachers say a major challenge is getting their students to slow the process down, take sufficient time to analyze information closely and carefully, and only then begin the writing process.  Instead, according to teachers’ accounts, they often see students speed through these tasks and underestimate the time it takes to produce a solid piece of writing containing a coherent and persuasive argument that synthesizes material well.

The survey included an open-end question asking teachers the biggest challenge they face teaching today’s students to write well.  While many themes emerged, including grammatical issues, plagiarism, and having them develop an appreciation for the importance of writing well, one theme stood among the others – that was getting students to slow down and take their time.  These AP and NWP teachers repeatedly mentioned the tendency of today’s students to want instant gratification, which they see as a serious detriment to the writing process.  Not only do teachers tell us that getting students to think before they begin writing is a challenge, it is also a challenge to have them revise their work and produce multiple drafts.

Ultimately, most of these AP and NWP teachers say the value of digital technology in teaching does not lie within the tool itself, but rather in how it is used

Ultimately, most AP and NWP teachers in the study say, digital tools used in the learning process are only as valuable as the pedagogy behind their use, and this speaks to the need for effective professional development in this area.  While most of these teachers report having at least some training in how to use digital tools effectively in the classroom, they most often seek out that training on their own.¹⁴ What many desire is a more structured and comprehensive approach to the use of digital technologies in the learning process, as well as sufficient access to the tools and support that both teachers and students need.

Data collection was conducted in two phases. In phase one, Pew Internet conducted two online and one in-person focus group with middle and high school teachers, as well as two in-person focus groups with students in grades 9-12. Focus group findings were instrumental in shaping the development of a 30-minute online survey, which was administered in phase two of the research to a national sample of middle and high school Advanced Placement and National Writing Project Summer Institute teachers, drawn from sample files provided by the College Board and the National Writing Project, respectively.

Phase One—Focus Groups

Focus group discussions were designed to elicit from teachers and students their perceptions of the different ways digital technologies such as the internet, search engines, social media, and cell phones are impacting and shaping students’ research and writing habits and skills. Teachers were also asked to speak in depth about their experiences teaching research and writing to middle and high school students today, any challenges they encounter, how they incorporate digital technologies into their classrooms and assignments, as well as how these technologies play a role in their professionalization.

In-person focus groups were led by two Pew Internet researchers, and were held on-site at a College Board school in the northeastern United States, immediately following school hours. Each discussion was approximately 1.5 hours in duration, and students and teachers were provided with Barnes & Noble gift cards as a token of appreciation for their participation ($25 for students, $50 for teachers). Focus group discussions were recorded and transcribed.

Two online focus groups were also held with teachers. The first utilized an existing online research community of 150 Advanced Placement teachers. A series of discussion questions or “exercises” designed by Pew Internet were administered to this group by panel administrators using an online, asynchronous platform. Panel administrators then provided Pew Internet with transcripts of responses to the exercises.

The second online teacher focus group was administered by Pew Internet staff using an online focus group platform. Participants in this group consisted of 30 National Writing Project teachers recruited by NWP site administrators. The asynchronous 3-day focus group was moderated by Pew Internet staff, and all participants were able to see and respond to one another’s comments as well as questions and comments from the moderators. Transcripts of the focus group were downloaded following completion of the discussion.

All focus group sessions were analyzed to identify key themes, and discussion guides were revised and adjusted between groups to better probe emergent themes. All focus group discussion guides are available at the end of this section.

Phase Two—Online Survey

Following completion of focus group discussions, Pew Internet designed and fielded a 30-minute online survey with a national sample of middle and high school teachers. The sample is not a probability sample of all teachers because it was not practical to assemble a sampling frame of this population. Instead, two large lists of teachers were assembled: one included 42,879 AP teachers who had agreed to allow the College Board to contact them (about one-third of all AP teachers), while the other was a list of 5,869 teachers who participated in the National Writing Project’s Summer Institute during 2007-2011. A stratified random sample of 16,721 AP teachers was drawn from the AP teacher list, based on subject taught, state, and grade level, while all members of the NWP list were included in the sample.

Email invitations containing a link to the survey and unique username and password were sent to members of the sample; teachers could not opt-in to the sample. The response rate was 12% for the AP teachers and 14% for the NWP teachers. Given the nature of the sampling frames used for the study, no margin of error has been computed.

The online survey was conducted from March 7–April 23, 2012, and was completed at least in part by 2,462 teachers (2,067 teachers completed the entire survey; partial completes were kept, and all percentages reported are based on those answering each question).

The teachers who participated in the survey

The survey results presented here are not based on a representative sample of U.S. middle and high school teachers, yet every effort was made to administer the survey to as broad a sample of educators as possible from the samples available. Overall, the 2,462 Advanced Placement and NWP Summer Institute teachers who participated in the survey comprise a fairly wide range of subject areas, experience levels, geographic regions, school type and socioeconomic level, and community type (full sample characteristics below).

The final sample includes teachers from all 50 states, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. All teachers who participated in the survey teach in physical schools/classrooms, as opposed to teaching online or virtual classes. English/Language Arts teachers make up a significant portion of the sample (36%), reflecting the intentional design of the sample. Only 9% of the final sample is middle school teachers, with the other 91% reporting that they currently teach grades 9-12. While half of the teachers participating in the survey report teaching in a small city or suburb, there is fairly wide distribution across school size and students’ socioeconomic status. There is also a wide distribution in terms of teachers’ ages and experience levels.

Interpreting the results

There are several important ways the teachers who participated in the survey are unique, which should be considered when interpreting the results reported here. First, 95% of the teachers who took the survey teach in public schools, thus the findings reported here reflect that environment almost exclusively. Moreover, and perhaps more importantly, the majority of teachers in this sample (56%) teach AP, honors and accelerated courses, thus the population of middle and high school students they work with skew heavily toward the highest achievers. These accelerated classes may have resources and support at their disposal—particularly in terms of specialized training and access to digital tools—that are not available in all classrooms.

In addition, it is critical to keep in mind that almost a third of the sample (NWP teachers) has received extensive training in how to effectively teach writing in today’s digital environment. The National Writing Project’s mission is to provide professional development, resources and support to teachers to improve the teaching of writing in today’s schools. The NWP teachers included here are what the organization terms “teacher-consultants” who have attended the Summer Institute and provide local leadership to other teachers. Research has shown significant gains in the writing performance of students who are taught by these teachers.¹⁵

Thus, the population of teachers participating in this research might best be considered “leading edge teachers” who are actively involved with the College Board and/or the National Writing Project and are therefore beneficiaries of resources and training not common to all teachers. It is likely that teachers in this study are developing some of the more innovative pedagogical approaches to teaching research and writing in today’s digital environment, and are incorporating classroom technology in ways that are not typical of the entire population of middle and high school teachers in the U.S.

More information about this study’s survey questions and focus groups can be found at the beginning of this report.