How the U.S. Census Bureau measures racial and ethnic identity and what the public thinks about it
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For over two centuries, Americans have been completing U.S. census surveys that ask about their racial identity. But the way these questions are asked has changed as the nation itself changed. Increasing racial and ethnic diversity, changing views of racial and ethnic identities, and rising immigration have all influenced how the Census Bureau frames these questions.
In 2030, Americans will find a new question on their decennial census form. For the first time, race and ethnicity will be asked in a single combined question rather than two.
The new question gives people more detailed categories to choose from. It is meant to more precisely measure the racial and ethnic identities of an increasingly diverse U.S. population.
Americans’ responses to census questions about race and ethnicity play a key role in decisions made by the public, government, policy makers and researchers alike. These data help track changes in the nation’s demographics, guide mandated redrawing of congressional districts, document social and economic differences in communities, track participation in government programs and allocate government resources.
Meanwhile, U.S. adults have mixed feelings about whether the government should ask about race in its surveys. Less than half say the Census Bureau should ask about race, while a third say it should not, according to a new Pew Research Center survey.
This data essay explores the evolution of how the U.S. decennial census has asked about racial and ethnic identity, what changes are coming in 2030 and how the U.S. public feels about the government collecting this type of data.
The nation’s first census in 1790 captured data on race. Government census takers (enumerators) classified people as free White men and women, all other free persons, or enslaved people, a practice that continued until 1960.
In 1850, the term Black was first introduced, along with the category “Mulatto” that was used to measure a “Black blood.” These were under the category “Color”.
American Indian was not a separate category until 1860, when the racial category of “Indian” was added. Beginning in 1890, the census included a complete count of American Indians on tribal land and reservations.
Starting in 1960, people could fill out decennial census forms on their own and return them by mail, including the question about race. Prior to that, census takers (enumerators) went door-to-door conducting the decennial census, identifying a person’s race based on factors such as their appearance.
From 1980 to 2020, Hispanic ethnicity, or whether someone is Hispanic, Latino or of Spanish origin, was captured by an additional question coming before the race question. Earlier decennial censuses had collected some Hispanic origins such as “Mexicans” or “Puerto Ricans”.
The first general label for Asians appeared on the census form as “Asian or Pacific Islander (API)” in 1990, while detailed origins such as “Chinese” had been included as early as 1870.
Beginning in 2000, Native Hawaiian, Samoan and Guamanian were separated from the Asian group and became part of a new category: Pacific Islander. Also in 2000, Americans for the first time could select more than one race when describing their racial identity. This made it possible to track the country’s growing multi-racial population.
Here’s what the country’s changing demographics look like since the first national census.