How the U.S. Census Bureau measures racial and ethnic identity and what the public thinks about it
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From the very first census in 1790, the United States has measured race–but never in the same way and rarely without controversy. Early categories like “free Whites”, “all other free persons” and “slaves” were captured then, reflecting the young nation’s politics and social hierarchies. Later counts added or redefined categories as politics, migration and attitudes about racial identity changed. That makes the census both a mirror and a snapshot of how Americans see themselves—and how the government sees them.
These categories are more than curiosities; they have real consequences for policy. Americans’ responses to census questions about race and ethnicity shape decisions that touch nearly every part of public life: from the drawing of congressional districts to the distribution of government resources and efforts to understand community differences.
Yet today, Americans are divided on whether race should even be counted. About half (46%) say the federal government should ask about it in its surveys, but one-third say it should not, according to a Pew Research Center survey conducted in June. Meanwhile, the Census Bureau is preparing to revise the questions again in 2030. The new format will combine race and Hispanic origin questions into a single item and adda new category for Middle Eastern or North African identity. So far, the public is largely unaware that these changes are coming.
This data essay explores how the U.S. decennial census has approached racial and ethnic measurement over the decades and how the U.S. public feels about the government collecting this information.
How are race and ethnicity measured by the Census Bureau today?
Currently, the Census Bureau asks about race and ethnicity with two questions, relying on respondents to self-report their identity.
- First, respondents are asked if they are of Hispanic, Latino or of Spanish origin.
- Then, they are asked “What is your race?” with the following options, and asked to choose all that apply:
- White,
- Black or African American,
- American Indian or Alaska Native,
- Asian American or Pacific Islander,
- Some other race.
This two-question format has been in use since the 1980s.
What is race and ethnicity according to the federal government?
The concepts of race and ethnicity are commonly discussed ideas. According to the Census Bureau, the racial categories included on the census form and in other federal surveys reflect social definitions of race generally accepted by the public. They are not meant to define race biologically, anthropologically, or genetically. And since social definitions can change, the way race has been captured and categorized in the decennial census has changed over the decades.
Meantime, the ethnicity measure of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) offers two minimum categories: “Hispanic or Latino” and “Not Hispanic or Latino.” OMB also states that Hispanic not a racial identity.
A brief history of how the U.S. decennial census has measured race and ethnicity
The nation’s first census in 1790 captured data on race. Government census takers (enumerators) classified people as “free White men and women”, “all other free persons”, or “enslaved people”.
Counting race in 1790: based on this categorization, “free White males and females” made up 80.7% of the U.S. population, while “other free persons and slaves” accounted for 19.3%.
In 1850, the term Black was first introduced, along with the category “Mulatto” that was used to measure a “Black blood.” These were under the category “Color”.
Counting race in 1850: “Blacks, Mulattos, Black slaves, and Mulatto slaves” accounted for 15.3% of the nation’s population, while “Whites” made up 84.3%.
American Indian was not a separate category until 1860, when “Indian” was added. Beginning in 1890, the census included a complete count of American Indians on tribal lands and reservations.
Counting race in 1860: “American Indians” made up about 0.1% of the country’s population, while “Whites” and “Blacks, Mulattos, Black slaves, and Mulatto slaves” accounted for 85.6% and 14.1% respectively.
Starting in 1960, people could fill out decennial census forms on their own and return them by mail. Prior to that, census enumerators went door-to-door conducting the decennial census, sometimes identifying a person’s race based on factors such as their appearance or acceptance in their community.
Counting race in 1960: based on the categorization used in that year, “Whites” made up 88.6% of the country’s total population, “Negros” 10.5%, “American Indians” 0.3%, and “Asians” 0.5%.
From 1980 to 2020, Hispanic ethnicity, was captured by an additional, separate question.
Counting race in 1980: “Hispanics”, who can be of any race, made up 6.5% of the country’s total population in that year, with 79.6% White non-Hispanic, 11.6% Black non-Hispanic, 1.6% Asian non-Hispanic, 0.6% American Indian or Alaska Native non-Hispanic and 0.1% some other race non-Hispanic.
The first general label for Asians appeared on the census form as “Asian or Pacific Islander (API)” in 1990, while detailed origins such as “Chinese” had been included as early as 1870.
Counting race in 1990: Asian or Pacific Islander non-Hispanic made up about 2.8% of the country’s population, with 8.8% Hispanics, 75.8% White non-Hispanic, 11.8% Black non-Hispanic, 8.8% Hispanics, 0.7% American Indian or Alaska Native non-Hispanic, 0.1% some other race non-Hispanic.
Beginning in 2000, Hawaiian, Samoan and Guamanian, and other Pacific Islander groups were separated from the Asian group and became part of a new category: Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander.
Also in 2000, Americans for the first time could select more than one race when describing their racial identity. This made it possible to track the country’s growing multi-racial population.
Counting race in 2000: Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islanders non-Hispanic accounted for 0.1% of the country’s population, while people who are two or more races non-Hispanic made up about 0.8%.
Here’s what the country’s changing demographics look like since the first national census in 1790 to its latest census in 2020. Slide the bar to explore snapshots of the country’s changing race and ethnicity populations over time.
Counting race in 2020: As of the latest census, White non-Hispanic made up 57.8% of the country’s population, with 18.7% Hispanics of any race, 12.1% Black non-Hispanic, 5.9% Asian non-Hispanic, 4.1% two or more races non-Hispanic, 0.7% American Indian or Alaska Native non-Hispanic, 0.5% some other race non-Hispanic, and 0.2% Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander non-Hispanic.
What’s changing in the 2030 Census
For 2030, the proposed census form combines the “Hispanic, Latino or Spanish origin” ethnicity question with the race question. That means the question about “Hispanic” ethnicity will appear as one option alongside racial groups.
The new, proposed combined question also adds a distinct, new category for “Middle Eastern or North African” identity, which was previously grouped under “White”.
These changes would bring the total number of major racial and ethnic categories to seven, with options for people to choose or write a more detailed origin within each group. Alphabetically, these are:
American Indian or Alaska Native
· Asian
· Black or African American
· Hispanic or Latino
· Middle Eastern or North African
· Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander
· White
The Census Bureau says these updates would aim to produce more accurate race and ethnicity data. (These proposed changes would also become common standards when federal agencies collect race and ethnicity data.) Some critics, however, argue these changes will lead to undercounts of some groups, such as Afro-Latinos.